Socio-economic and political development of Russia in the pre-war period

The First World War began when Russia was going through one of the most difficult periods of its centuries-old history. Russian society entered the 20th century burdened with the burden of unresolved contradictions, partly generated by the entire course of post-reform development, partly inherited from past eras. Social problems undoubtedly gave large sections of the population many reasons for discontent, and the authorities often demonstrated their reluctance and inability to take this into account. The measures taken by the autocracy in the conditions of the first Russian revolution, designed to bring the socio-economic and political structures of the empire in line with the requirements of the era, by 1914 could not or did not have time to create conditions for improving the political situation.

Pre-war and, more broadly speaking, post-reform Russia was faced with a phenomenon (all societies of modern times had to face it in one way or another as a result of increased social mobility, the development of education, the destruction of traditions, which for centuries and even millennia had rigidly determined the behavior and degree of ambition of the individual and entire social strata ), which is usually called " a sharp increase in the level of social expectations and demands“, due to which the claims of various groups of the population often grew much faster than the ability to satisfy the corresponding demands. All this posed a serious threat to social stability.

The situation in Russia at the beginning of the First World War was very ambiguous. Thus, in the economic field, the country achieved results that looked very impressive. Industry in 1910 entered a boom phase. Average annual increase in industrial production in 1910-1913. exceeded 11%. Over the same period, industries producing means of production increased their output by 83%, and light industry by 35.3%. It should be noted that before the war, the increase in 1910-1914 had not yet had time to produce the desired effect. investment in industry and all technical modernization.

The process of monopolization of industry, which had begun even earlier, developed rapidly. It was at this time that monopolistic associations of the highest types appeared in Russia - trusts and concerns.

In terms of industrial production, Russia in 1913 ranked fifth in the world, second only to the USA, Germany, England and France. At the same time, Russia came close to France, whose share in world industrial production was 6.4%, while Russia's share was 5.3%. In terms of steel smelting, rolling, construction machinery, cotton processing and sugar production, Russia was ahead of France, ranking fourth in the world. Russia is second only to the United States in oil production. And yet it lagged significantly behind the three leading industrial powers - the USA, Germany and England, whose shares in world industrial production were respectively 35.8, 15.7, 14%. The process of industrialization of the Russian economy by 1913 was still very far from completion. In the structure of Russia's national income in 1913, the share of industry and construction was no more than 29.1%, while the share of agriculture was about 56%.

The continued agrarian orientation of the country's economy was also evidenced by the volume of Russian exports, only 5.6% of which were industrial products, and more than 90% were food, semi-finished products and raw materials. The share of industrial goods in imports was 22%. Moreover, just on the eve of the First World War, a very alarming trend clearly emerged - Russia's increasing dependence on the import of industrial goods from abroad. As a result, the country's trade surplus decreased from 581 million rubles. in 1909 up to 200 million rubles. in 1913, and the Council of Congresses of Representatives of Industry and Trade (the governing body of the all-Russian association of entrepreneurs) was forced, characterizing the current economic situation, to state the increase in “the import of foreign works with the impossibility of satisfying domestic demand with products of domestic, albeit developing industry.”

The development of the agricultural sector of the Russian economy on the eve of the First World War was strongly influenced by the agrarian reform begun in 1906, associated with the name of the then head of the tsarist government and Minister of Internal Affairs II.A. Stolypin. Revolution 1905-1907 forced the autocracy to make significant adjustments to its policy towards the peasantry. Disappointed in the protective potential of the community, the authorities abandoned the policy of supporting it that had been pursued since the abolition of serfdom and took the opposite course of establishing individual peasant farms.

The most important goal of the reform was the creation of a new social stratum - wealthy village owners, capable of becoming a stronghold of law and order (due to their vested interest in it) and ensuring sustainable growth of production in the agricultural sector of the Russian economy.

The results of the new agricultural course, which emerged at the beginning of the First World War, were contradictory. By 1915, 3,084 thousand households (26% of the total number of households) left the community. The figure is significant. However, among those who left there were many people who broke with agriculture and sought, having secured the land plot as their own, to sell it. A layer of wealthy village owners, who wanted to create P.A. Stolypin, formed at a very slow pace, which was greatly facilitated by the strength of community traditions, the lack of adequate financial support for the reform, etc. It is no coincidence that Stolypin himself considered it necessary to have “twenty years of internal and external peace” for the success of his endeavors. These twenty years, however, were not released to Russia.

In general, the Stolypin reform undoubtedly contributed to the modernization of Russian agriculture and its development. On the eve of the First World War there was a marked increase in agricultural production. Thanks to the widespread resettlement of peasants to vacant lands beyond the Urals, supported by the government, the area under cultivation increased significantly. This circumstance, as well as an increase in productivity, led to an increase in the annual harvest of agricultural crops. Average gross grain harvest in 1904-1908. amounted to 3.8 billion poods, and in 1909-1913. - 4.9 billion. However, the growth of agricultural production in the pre-war period was not only the result of the reform, but also a consequence of favorable weather conditions, increased prices for agricultural products on the world and domestic markets, etc.

The rapid economic development of the country on the eve of the world cataclysm of 1914-1918. contributed to an increase in the living standards of the population. Between 1908 and 1913, national income per capita increased by 17%. However, by Western standards it remained very low. The USA surpassed Russia in this indicator by six times, England - four times. Persons (individuals and legal entities) who received at least 1000 rubles per year. net income (this was a kind of “threshold of prosperity”, and it was the recipients of such income that were supposed to be subject to the income tax introduced already during the war), there were less than 700 thousand in 1910, which was, of course, very small for the country, the population which was approaching 160 million people.

The state-legal structure of the Russian Empire was determined on the eve of the First World War by the Basic Laws approved by Nicholas II in April 1906. They finally legally formalized the changes that occurred in the mechanism of governing the country as a result of the transformations carried out in late 1905 - early 1906. Then, under the conditions of the first Russian revolution, the autocracy was forced to take measures designed to attract to its side the educated strata of the population, the so-called society, which, in the person of the liberal opposition, actively expressed dissatisfaction with the preservation in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. absolute monarchy, demanded the transformation of the country into a rule of law state, the elimination of the bureaucracy's monopoly on political power, and the convening of a representative body with legislative functions. Such a body was established - it became the State Duma. The State Council, which was previously only a legislative advisory institution, also received legislative rights. The State Council was called upon to play the role of the upper chamber (in relation to the Duma) of the Russian parliament that thus emerged. Half of the members of the Council were appointed by the emperor, and half were chosen according to a very complex scheme, according to which seats in the upper house could only be received by representatives of the propertied classes (primarily the nobility).

The reforms carried out limited the rights of the monarch in the legislative field. Under the previous order, only the sanction of the king was required for the law to come into force. But from now on it was no longer enough. The corresponding bill (in the form of a general rule) could become law only if approved by both the emperor, the Duma and the State Council. However, the crown retained very broad prerogatives. Thus, the emperor had full executive power. The head of government (chairman of the Council of Ministers) and ministers were appointed and removed from their posts solely at the will of the king and were not responsible to the legislative chambers. As a result of the transformations of 1905-1906. a constitutional monarchy of the dualistic type was established in Russia, or a form of government in which legislative power is divided between representative structures and the crown, and executive power is retained by the crown.

The changes that took place in the political system of the empire were very significant. Russian statehood has clearly evolved towards a legal system. An indispensable element of the country's social life became a multi-party system. Parties of both conservative (Union of the Russian People, etc.) and liberal orientations - the Union of October 17 (Octobrists), as well as the Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets), etc. - entered the political arena.

Of course, the process of “growing in” of representative structures (primarily the State Duma, since the “semi-bureaucratic” State Council was a body where the tone was largely set by the monarchists rather than the tsar himself) was very difficult. The latter could not get along with the First and Second Dumas, which turned out to be too left-wing from the point of view of the authorities, and they were dissolved. Only with the Third Duma, which began its work in the fall of 1907 (its deputies were elected on the basis approved by the tsar, bypassing the Duma and the State Council, in violation of the Basic Laws of the Empire and the “Regulations on Elections to the State Duma” of June 3, 1907, which significantly expanded the ability of landowners and large city owners to influence the electoral process), the government headed by P.A. The Stolypins managed to find a common language.

Duma majority represented by conservative-liberal deputies

• Octobrists,
• moderate right and
• nationalists

generally supported Stolypin's course. It seemed that the dramatic confrontation between government and society, which had left a strong imprint on the entire history of post-reform Russia, had come to an end, and the country, having survived the revolutionary storm of 1905-1907, entered a period of “calm”, characterized, among other things, by a sharp decline in the strike activity of workers and the “pacification” of the countryside . Left-radical organizations - the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), which continued the populist traditions, Bolshevik and Menshevik movements in the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party - were experiencing a deep crisis.

However, the contradictions that tore apart Russian society turned out to be too acute.

The period of political calm was short-lived. Already at the turn of 1910-1911. The labor movement intensified. As the Council of Ministers stated in 1913, “the frequent occurrence of strikes at this time is explained by the current period of revival of industrial activity (in other words, industrial upsurge. - Ed.), which workers use to intensify their presentation of economic demands to employers.” Under these conditions, political organizations of the radical left began to make themselves known more and more loudly. The Bolsheviks, having separated from the Mensheviks (liquidators) at the Prague Party Conference in 1913, waged a successful struggle with more moderate trends in Russian Social Democracy for influence among the workers.

The shooting of a peaceful march of workers from the Lena gold mines on April 4, 1912, as a result of which 270 people were killed and 250 were wounded, had a significant impact on the development of the internal political situation in the country.

About 300 thousand workers took part in the protest movement that swept through the cities of Russia. The performances, held under political slogans, reached a wide scale. The number of strikers in 1912 was approximately 1 million 463 thousand people. 1913 was even more turbulent, when about 2 million workers took part in strikes. The scope of the movement, its activity, and the combination of political and economic demands were reminiscent of 1905. Chairman of the Council of Ministers V.N. Kokovtsov, who replaced Stolypin in this position in 1911, nevertheless, not without reason, recommended that the foreign journalist visit cities located “with a radius of 100-200 kilometers from large industrial centers, such as St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkov, Kyiv, Odessa, Saratov... There,” Kokovtsov noted, “you will not find the revolutionary mood that your informants tell you about.” However, in this case, the prime minister, wittingly or unwittingly, ignored the fact that the “large industrial centers” were also the centers of the political life of the empire, which is why everything that happened in them caused a particularly strong public response.

Relations between the government and the State Duma also deteriorated noticeably on the eve of the First World War. An important condition for the cooperation between the Duma majority and the cabinet that emerged under Stolypin was the government’s promise to implement a very broad program of liberal reforms, promulgated in a special declaration back in August 1906. In addition to agrarian reform, the program provided for the reform of local government bodies (zemstvo institutions), provincial and district administrations, etc. .P. Stolypin's plans, which to a certain extent infringed on the interests of the nobility, met, however, serious opposition from the right in the person of the all-Russian noble organization - the Council of the United Nobility and the conservative majority of the State Council. Yielding to his critics, Stolypin refused (at least for a while) to implement most of the reforms he had promised, which caused irritation in society and the State Duma.

Kokovtsov, who headed the government after the death of Stolypin, did not even think about implementing the transformation plans of his predecessor.

In the fall of 1912, elections to the IV State Duma were held. In its composition, the new Duma differed little from the previous one. True, the Octobrists, who were the largest faction in the Third Duma, suffered a serious defeat in the elections, losing about 1/3 of their mandates. The Octobrist electorate, in particular Moscow business circles, became disillusioned with the ability of this party to achieve the desired reforms from the autocracy.

The IV State Duma was generally less flexible than its predecessor. Opposition speeches by deputies stimulated anti-Duma sentiments at the top and among Nicholas II himself, who, perceiving the idea of ​​​​the unlimited power of the tsarist as a religious dogma, was burdened by the order established in Russia as a result of the political transformations of 1905-1906. Within the Council of Ministers, contradictions intensified between supporters of cooperation with society and the Duma and adherents of a hard line. The latter, the head of the Council of Ministers, Kokovtsov, seemed overly liberal, inclined to take the Duma into account too much. The position of the right at the top was significantly strengthened after the appointment of N.A. as Minister of Internal Affairs in 1912. Maklakov, who openly demonstrated his ultra-monarchist beliefs and enjoyed the special sympathy and trust of Nikolai I. At the beginning of 1914, Kokovtsov was dismissed. His successor was I.L. Goremykin was an elderly dignitary who held very conservative views.

The most influential figure in the Council of Ministers, however, turned out to be the chief manager of land management and agriculture, A.V. Krivoshein. Master of Political Intrigue, an experienced and capable statesman, Krivoshein was the initiator of the “new course”, for the implementation of which he, after the resignation of Kokovtsov, received the consent of Nicholas II. The “New Deal” provided for improving relations with the Duma and introducing significant adjustments to the economic policy of the autocracy. Krivoshein advocated increasing investment in agriculture and increasing assistance to peasants and the local nobility who stood out from the community. Objectively, this meant a willingness to accept a slight slowdown in industrial growth in the name of accelerating the development of the agricultural sector and overcoming its remaining lag.

The New Deal, however, did not bring any tangible results. Quite soon, the inability of the Ministry of Finance to achieve a noticeable increase in public investment in agriculture or attract private capital there was revealed. Cooperation with the Duma also failed. The favorable attitude towards her, initially demonstrated by the government, soon gave way to a line towards petty infringement of Duma prerogatives, which created the basis for new conflicts between government and society. In June 1914, at the initiative of Nicholas II, the Council of Ministers discussed the issue of revising the Basic Laws of 1906 in order to turn the Duma (and at the same time the State Council) into legislative advisory institutions. Almost all members of the cabinet, with the exception of N.A. Maklakov, however, spoke out against the tsar’s intentions. As a result, Nicholas II conceded, declaring, summing up the debate: “Gentlemen, as it was, so it will be.”

Meanwhile, the situation in the country was heating up. In the first half of 1914, 1.5 million people took part in strikes. The scope of the movement was extremely large. On May 28, 1914, a strike of 500 thousand workers began in Baku. The shooting of a meeting of Putilov workers on July 3, 1914 caused a wave of strikes and demonstrations in the capital, where barricades began to be built in a number of areas (for the first time since 1905). The situation in the country was dramatically changed by the First World War, which began in July 1914.

Germany before World War I

In less than half a century of its existence before the First World War, Germany, according to a number of economic and political indicators, became one of the most industrialized countries in Europe. Ultimately, the military development and active offensive foreign policy of Wilhelm II and his entourage largely contributed to the state’s slide towards World War II.

The first years after the formation of the Second Reich

From now on, his task was to eliminate the danger of a war on two fronts, which he considered obviously losing for the state. Subsequently, during his entire tenure as chancellor, he was haunted by the nightmare of coalitions (French: le cauchemar des coalitions). He tried to eliminate it by categorically refusing to acquire colonies, which would inevitably significantly increase the danger of armed conflict in collisions with the interests of the colonial powers, primarily with England. He considered good relations with her to be the key to Germany’s security, and therefore directed all his efforts to solving internal problems. Bismarck believed that Germany should not strive for dominance in Europe, but be satisfied with what has been achieved and respect the interests of its neighbors. He expressed his foreign policy as follows:

A strong Germany wishes to be left in peace and to develop peacefully for this to be possible Germany had to maintain a strong army since one does not attack someone whose dagger is loose in the sheath

Strong Germany wants to be left alone and allowed to develop in peace, for which it must have a strong army, since no one will dare to attack someone who has a sword in its sheath

At the same time, Bismarck seriously counted on the fact that European powers with conflicting interests would be interested in Germany:

all the powers with the exception of France need us, and as far as possible will be stopped from forming coalitions against us as a result of their relations one with another

All states, with the exception of France, need us and, as far as possible, will refrain from creating coalitions against us as a result of existing contradictions between them.

Five ball juggling

In his bet on disagreements in the rival camp, Bismarck relied on facts. After France purchased shares in the Suez Canal, problems arose in its relations with England. Russia found itself involved in relations with Turkey on the Black Sea, and its interests in the Balkans dictated the need for rapprochement with Germany and, at the same time, collided with the interests of Austria-Hungary. According to the figurative expression of the historian, Bismarck found himself in the position of a juggler with five balls, three of which he had to constantly keep in the air.

Berlin Congress

Despite the fact that during this war, Bismarck categorically objected to Austrian proposals to involve Germany in hostilities against Russia, on July 3, 1878, he signed the Treaty of Berlin with representatives of the great powers, which established new borders in Europe. Austria was promised Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Russia was to return many of the territories it had conquered to Turkey, which remained in the Balkans but lost control. Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were recognized as independent countries and became part of the Habsburg Empire. England received Cyprus. An autonomous Slavic principality was created in the Ottoman Empire - Bulgaria.

In the Russian press, after this, the Pan-Slavists began a campaign against Germany, which greatly alarmed Bismarck. Again, a real threat of an anti-German coalition with the participation of Russia arose. Russia withdrew from the members of the Triple Agreement (or the Alliance of the Three Emperors (1873) - Russia, Germany and Austria. .

New direction in politics

Frederick III

At the beginning of his career as head of state, Wilhelm claimed the title of “social emperor” and even intended to organize an international conference to discuss the situation of workers. He was convinced that a mixture of social reform, Protestantism and, in a certain proportion, anti-Semitism could distract workers from the influence of the socialists. Bismarck opposed this course because he believed that trying to make everyone happy at once was absurd. However, the universal suffrage he introduced led to the fact that not only the socialists, but also the majority of officials, politicians, military men and businessmen did not support him, and on March 18 he resigned. At first, society was inspired by the words of the Kaiser: “The course remains unchanged. Full speed ahead." However, soon many began to understand that this was not so, and disappointment set in, and the personality of the “Iron Chancellor”, even during his lifetime, began to acquire mythical features.

The era that began under William I is called in the West the “Wilhelminian” (German: Wilgelminische Ära) and was based on the unshakable foundation of the monarchy, the army, religion and faith in progress in all areas.

Wilhelm's global claims were supported by Admiral Tirpitz (1849-1930), who was keen on the idea of ​​competition with the “mistress of the seas” Great Britain. He was a capable, knowledgeable, energetic officer with the gift of a demagogue. He organized an unprecedented, nation-wide campaign to build a Navy that was supposed to be twice the size of Britain's fleet and drive it out of world trade. All classes of the country supported this idea, including the socialists, since it guaranteed many jobs and relatively high salaries.

Wilhelm willingly supported Tirpitz not only because his activities were fully consistent with his global claims, but also because they were directed against parliament, or rather its left wing. Under him, the country continued the seizure of territories that began under Bismarck (and against his will), mainly in Africa, and showed interest in South America.

Their nobles have arrived (German: Seine Hoheit auf Reisen)

At the same time, Wilhelm came into conflict with Bismarck, whom he fired in the city. Lieutenant General von Caprivi became Chancellor. (Leo von Caprivi), head of the Admiralty. He did not have enough political experience, but he understood that a powerful fleet was suicide for the state. He had the intention of following the path of social reforms, limiting imperialist tendencies, and reducing the outflow of emigrants, mainly to the USA, which amounted to 100,000 people a year. He tried in every possible way to promote the export of industrial goods, including to Russia in exchange for grain. By doing this, he aroused the discontent of the agrarian lobby, which was the backbone of the German economy and insisted, back in the days of Bismarck, on a protectionist policy.

The imperialist layers were dissatisfied with the policy pursued by the chancellor, questioning the expediency of the exchange of Zanzibar for Heligoland, carried out by Bismarck.

Caprivi made attempts to reach a consensus with the socialists, primarily with the influential SPD party in the Reichstag. Due to resistance from the extreme right and the Kaiser, he failed to integrate the Social Democrats (whom Wilhelm called "a bunch of bandits who do not deserve the right to be called Germans") into the political life of the empire.

However, there was no unity among the right. Finance Minister Miquel created a coalition of right-wing forces under the slogan of “concentration policy” (Sammlungspolitik) of farmers and representatives of industry, who often had different goals. Thus, industrial circles supported the construction of canals, which Wilhelm himself was a supporter of, but this was opposed by farmers who feared that cheap grain would flow through these canals. These disagreements served as an argument in favor of the fact that Germany needed socialists, if only to ensure the passage of laws in the Reichstag.

Emigrants

Significant differences with Bismarck's traditions also became apparent in the field of foreign policy, which accompanied the emergence of German imperialism. In the middle of the century, Germany, together with England, Ireland and Scandinavia, was among the countries that provided the largest number of emigrants to America, especially the USA and Canada. This is how one of the provinces of Canada received the name “New Brunswick”. Bernhard von Bülow, who became Foreign Minister in the city, stated in parliament:

The time when the Germans left Germany, going to neighboring countries, and leaving only the sky above their heads as their property, is over... We are not going to keep anyone in the shadows, but we ourselves demand a place in the sun.

At the meeting of Wilhelm II and Nicholas II in 1905 in Björkö, an agreement was reached on mutual assistance if either country were attacked. It was assumed that France would also join this agreement. Quickly realizing the absurdity of these expectations, Russia took back its promises.

Tension began to arise in society, caused, on the one hand, by an uncritical belief in limitless technological progress and, on the other, a fear deeply embedded in the ideology of the bourgeoisie that the situation could suddenly and in the near future change for the worse.

The idea that arose in Nietzsche’s sick brain about a new race of people who would build a new world on the ruins of the old took root and was not forgotten.

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First World War (1914 - 1918)

The Russian Empire collapsed. One of the goals of the war has been achieved.

Chamberlain

The First World War lasted from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918. 38 states with a population of 62% of the world took part in it. This war was quite controversial and extremely contradictory in modern history. I specifically quoted Chamberlain’s words in the epigraph in order to once again emphasize this inconsistency. A prominent politician in England (Russia's war ally) says that by overthrowing the autocracy in Russia one of the goals of the war has been achieved!

The Balkan countries played a major role in the beginning of the war. They were not independent. Their policies (both foreign and domestic) were greatly influenced by England. Germany had by that time lost its influence in this region, although it controlled Bulgaria for a long time.

• Entente. Russian Empire, France, Great Britain. The allies were the USA, Italy, Romania, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
• Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Later they were joined by the Bulgarian kingdom, and the coalition became known as the “Quadruple Alliance”.

The following large countries took part in the war: Austria-Hungary (July 27, 1914 - November 3, 1918), Germany (August 1, 1914 - November 11, 1918), Turkey (October 29, 1914 - October 30, 1918), Bulgaria (October 14, 1915 - 29 September 1918). Entente countries and allies: Russia (August 1, 1914 - March 3, 1918), France (August 3, 1914), Belgium (August 3, 1914), Great Britain (August 4, 1914), Italy (May 23, 1915), Romania (August 27, 1916) .

One more important point. Initially, Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance. But after the outbreak of World War I, the Italians declared neutrality.

Causes of the First World War

The main reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the desire of the leading powers, primarily England, France and Austria-Hungary, to redistribute the world. The fact is that the colonial system collapsed by the beginning of the 20th century. The leading European countries, which had prospered for years through the exploitation of their colonies, could no longer simply obtain resources by taking them away from Indians, Africans and South Americans. Now resources could only be won from each other. Therefore, contradictions grew:

• Between England and Germany. England sought to prevent Germany from increasing its influence in the Balkans. Germany sought to strengthen itself in the Balkans and the Middle East, and also sought to deprive England of maritime dominance.
• Between Germany and France. France dreamed of regaining the lands of Alsace and Lorraine, which it had lost in the war of 1870-71. France also sought to seize the German Saar coal basin.
• Between Germany and Russia. Germany sought to take Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states from Russia.
• Between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Controversies arose due to the desire of both countries to influence the Balkans, as well as Russia's desire to subjugate the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

The reason for the start of the war

The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the events in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina). On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand of the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, so the resonance of the murder was enormous. This was the pretext for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia.

The behavior of England is very important here, since Austria-Hungary could not start a war on its own, because this practically guaranteed war throughout Europe. The British at the embassy level convinced Nicholas 2 that Russia should not leave Serbia without help in the event of aggression. But then the entire (I emphasize this) English press wrote that the Serbs were barbarians and Austria-Hungary should not leave the murder of the Archduke unpunished. That is, England did everything to ensure that Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia did not shy away from war.

Important nuances of the casus belli

In all textbooks we are told that the main and only reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. At the same time, they forget to say that the next day, June 29, another significant murder took place. The French politician Jean Jaurès, who actively opposed the war and had great influence in France, was killed. A few weeks before the assassination of the Archduke, there was an attempt on the life of Rasputin, who, like Zhores, was an opponent of the war and had great influence on Nicholas 2. I would also like to note some facts from the fate of the main characters of those days:

• Gavrilo Principin. Died in prison in 1918 from tuberculosis.
• The Russian Ambassador to Serbia is Hartley. In 1914 he died at the Austrian embassy in Serbia, where he came for a reception.
• Colonel Apis, leader of the Black Hand. Shot in 1917.
• In 1917, Hartley’s correspondence with Sozonov (the next Russian ambassador to Serbia) disappeared.

This all indicates that in the events of the day there were a lot of black spots that have not yet been revealed. And this is very important to understand.

England's role in starting the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 great powers in continental Europe: Germany and Russia. They did not want to openly fight against each other, since their forces were approximately equal. Therefore, in the “July crisis” of 1914, both sides took a wait-and-see approach. British diplomacy came to the fore. Using the press and secret diplomacy, she conveyed her position to Germany - in the event of war, England would remain neutral or take Germany's side. Through open diplomacy, Nicholas 2 received the opposite idea that if war broke out, England would take the side of Russia.

It must be clearly understood that one open statement from England that it would not allow war in Europe would be enough for neither Germany nor Russia to even think about anything like that. Naturally, under such conditions, Austria-Hungary would not have dared to attack Serbia. But England, with all its diplomacy, pushed European countries towards war.

Russia before the war

Before the First World War, Russia carried out army reform. In 1907, a reform of the fleet was carried out, and in 1910, a reform of the ground forces. The country increased military spending many times over, and the total peacetime army size was now 2 million. In 1912, Russia adopted a new Field Service Charter. Today it is rightly called the most perfect Charter of its time, since it motivated soldiers and commanders to show personal initiative. Important point! The doctrine of the army of the Russian Empire was offensive.

Despite the fact that there were many positive changes, there were also very serious miscalculations. The main one is the underestimation of the role of artillery in war. As the course of events of the First World War showed, this was a terrible mistake, which clearly showed that at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian generals were seriously behind the times. They lived in the past, when the role of cavalry was important. As a result, 75% of all losses in the First World War were caused by artillery! This is a verdict on the imperial generals.

It is important to note that Russia never completed preparations for war (at the proper level), while Germany completed it in 1914.

The balance of forces and means before and after the war

Artillery

	Number of guns	Of these, heavy guns
Austria-Hungary
Germany

According to the data from the table, it is clear that Germany and Austria-Hungary were many times superior to Russia and France in terms of heavy guns. Therefore, the balance of power was in favor of the first two countries. Moreover, the Germans, as usual, created an excellent military industry before the war, which produced 250,000 shells daily. By comparison, Britain produced 10,000 shells per month! As they say, feel the difference...

Another example showing the importance of artillery is the battles on the Dunajec Gorlice line (May 1915). In 4 hours, the German army fired 700,000 shells. For comparison, during the entire Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Germany fired just over 800,000 shells. That is, in 4 hours a little less than during the entire war. The Germans clearly understood that heavy artillery would play a decisive role in the war.

Weapons and military equipment

Production of weapons and equipment during the First World War (thousands of units).

	Strelkovoe	Artillery
Great Britain
TRIPLE ALLIANCE
Germany
Austria-Hungary

This table clearly shows the weakness of the Russian Empire in terms of equipping the army. In all main indicators, Russia is much inferior to Germany, but also inferior to France and Great Britain. Largely because of this, the war turned out to be so difficult for our country.

Number of people (infantry)

Number of fighting infantry (millions of people).

	At the beginning of the war	By the end of the war	Casualties
Great Britain
TRIPLE ALLIANCE
Germany
Austria-Hungary

The table shows that Great Britain made the smallest contribution to the war, both in terms of combatants and deaths. This is logical, since the British did not really participate in major battles. Another example from this table is instructive. All textbooks tell us that Austria-Hungary, due to large losses, could not fight on its own, and it always needed help from Germany. But notice Austria-Hungary and France in the table. The numbers are identical! Just as Germany had to fight for Austria-Hungary, so Russia had to fight for France (it is no coincidence that the Russian army saved Paris from capitulation three times during the First World War).

The table also shows that in fact the war was between Russia and Germany. Both countries lost 4.3 million killed, while Britain, France and Austria-Hungary together lost 3.5 million. The numbers are telling. But it turned out that the countries that fought the most and made the most effort in the war ended up with nothing. First, Russia signed the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, losing many lands. Then Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, essentially losing its independence.

Progress of the war

Military events of 1914

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. This entailed the involvement of the countries of the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Entente, on the other hand, into the war.

Russia entered World War I on August 1, 1914. Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (Uncle of Nicholas 2) was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief.

In the first days of the war, St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Since the war with Germany began, the capital could not have a name of German origin - “burg”.

Historical reference

German "Schlieffen Plan"

Germany found itself under the threat of war on two fronts: Eastern - with Russia, Western - with France. Then the German command developed the “Schlieffen Plan”, according to which Germany should defeat France in 40 days and then fight with Russia. Why 40 days? The Germans believed that this was exactly what Russia would need to mobilize. Therefore, when Russia mobilizes, France will already be out of the game.

On August 2, 1914, Germany captured Luxembourg, on August 4 they invaded Belgium (a neutral country at that time), and by August 20 Germany reached the borders of France. The implementation of the Schlieffen Plan began. Germany advanced deep into France, but on September 5 it was stopped at the Marne River, where a battle took place in which about 2 million people took part on both sides.

Northwestern Front of Russia in 1914

At the beginning of the war, Russia did something stupid that Germany could not calculate. Nicholas 2 decided to enter the war without fully mobilizing the army. On August 4, Russian troops, under the command of Rennenkampf, launched an offensive in East Prussia (modern Kaliningrad). Samsonov's army was equipped to help her. Initially, the troops acted successfully, and Germany was forced to retreat. As a result, part of the forces of the Western Front was transferred to the Eastern Front. The result - Germany repelled the Russian offensive in East Prussia (the troops acted disorganized and lacked resources), but as a result the Schlieffen plan failed, and France could not be captured. So, Russia saved Paris, albeit by defeating its 1st and 2nd armies. After this, trench warfare began.

Southwestern Front of Russia

On the southwestern front, in August-September, Russia launched an offensive operation against Galicia, which was occupied by troops of Austria-Hungary. The Galician operation was more successful than the offensive in East Prussia. In this battle, Austria-Hungary suffered a catastrophic defeat. 400 thousand people killed, 100 thousand captured. For comparison, the Russian army lost 150 thousand people killed. After this, Austria-Hungary actually withdrew from the war, since it lost the ability to conduct independent actions. Austria was saved from complete defeat only by the help of Germany, which was forced to transfer additional divisions to Galicia.

The main results of the military campaign of 1914

• Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for lightning war.
• No one managed to gain a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

Map of military events of 1914-15

Military events of 1915

In 1915, Germany decided to shift the main blow to the eastern front, directing all its forces to the war with Russia, which was the weakest country of the Entente, according to the Germans. It was a strategic plan developed by the commander of the Eastern Front, General von Hindenburg. Russia managed to thwart this plan only at the cost of colossal losses, but at the same time, 1915 turned out to be simply terrible for the empire of Nicholas 2.

Situation on the northwestern front

From January to October, Germany waged an active offensive, as a result of which Russia lost Poland, western Ukraine, part of the Baltic states, and western Belarus. Russia went on the defensive. Russian losses were gigantic:

• Killed and wounded - 850 thousand people
• Captured - 900 thousand people

Russia did not capitulate, but the countries of the Triple Alliance were convinced that Russia would no longer be able to recover from the losses it had suffered.

Germany's successes on this sector of the front led to the fact that on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria entered the First World War (on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary).

Situation on the southwestern front

The Germans, together with Austria-Hungary, organized the Gorlitsky breakthrough in the spring of 1915, forcing the entire southwestern front of Russia to retreat. Galicia, which was captured in 1914, was completely lost. Germany was able to achieve this advantage thanks to the terrible mistakes of the Russian command, as well as a significant technical advantage. German superiority in technology reached:

• 2.5 times in machine guns.
• 4.5 times in light artillery.
• 40 times in heavy artillery.

It was not possible to withdraw Russia from the war, but the losses on this section of the front were gigantic: 150 thousand killed, 700 thousand wounded, 900 thousand prisoners and 4 million refugees.

Situation on the Western Front

"Everything is calm on the Western Front." This phrase can describe how the war between Germany and France proceeded in 1915. There were sluggish military operations in which no one sought the initiative. Germany was implementing plans in eastern Europe, and England and France were calmly mobilizing their economy and army, preparing for further war. No one provided any assistance to Russia, although Nicholas 2 repeatedly turned to France, first of all, so that it would take active action on the Western Front. As usual, no one heard him... By the way, this sluggish war on Germany’s western front was perfectly described by Hemingway in the novel “A Farewell to Arms.”

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to bring Russia out of the war, although all efforts were devoted to this. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since during the 1.5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or strategic initiative.

Military events of 1916

"Verdun Meat Grinder"

In February 1916, Germany launched a general offensive against France with the goal of capturing Paris. For this purpose, a campaign was carried out on Verdun, which covered the approaches to the French capital. The battle lasted until the end of 1916. During this time, 2 million people died, for which the battle was called the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. France survived, but again thanks to the fact that Russia came to its rescue, which became more active on the southwestern front.

Events on the southwestern front in 1916

In May 1916, Russian troops went on the offensive, which lasted 2 months. This offensive went down in history under the name “Brusilovsky breakthrough”. This name is due to the fact that the Russian army was commanded by General Brusilov. The breakthrough of the defense in Bukovina (from Lutsk to Chernivtsi) happened on June 5. The Russian army managed not only to break through the defenses, but also to advance into its depths in some places up to 120 kilometers. The losses of the Germans and Austro-Hungarians were catastrophic. 1.5 million dead, wounded and prisoners. The offensive was stopped only by additional German divisions, which were hastily transferred here from Verdun (France) and from Italy.

This offensive of the Russian army was not without a fly in the ointment. As usual, the allies dropped her off. On August 27, 1916, Romania entered the First World War on the side of the Entente. Germany defeated her very quickly. As a result, Romania lost its army, and Russia received an additional 2 thousand kilometers of front.

Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern fronts

Positional battles continued on the Northwestern Front during the spring-autumn period. As for the Caucasian Front, the main events here lasted from the beginning of 1916 to April. During this time, 2 operations were carried out: Erzurmur and Trebizond. According to their results, Erzurum and Trebizond were conquered, respectively.

The result of 1916 in the First World War

• The strategic initiative passed to the side of the Entente.
• The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the offensive of the Russian army.
• Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
• Russia carried out a powerful offensive - the Brusilov breakthrough.

Military and political events 1917

The year 1917 in the First World War was marked by the fact that the war continued against the background of the revolutionary situation in Russia and Germany, as well as the deterioration of the economic situation of the countries. Let me give you the example of Russia. During the 3 years of the war, prices for basic products increased on average by 4-4.5 times. Naturally, this caused discontent among the people. Add to this heavy losses and a grueling war - it turns out to be excellent soil for revolutionaries. The situation is similar in Germany.

In 1917, the United States entered the First World War. The position of the Triple Alliance is deteriorating. Germany and its allies cannot effectively fight on 2 fronts, as a result of which it goes on the defensive.

The end of the war for Russia

In the spring of 1917, Germany launched another offensive on the Western Front. Despite the events in Russia, Western countries demanded that the Provisional Government implement the agreements signed by the Empire and send troops on the offensive. As a result, on June 16, the Russian army went on the offensive in the Lvov area. Again, we saved the allies from major battles, but we ourselves were completely exposed.

The Russian army, exhausted by the war and losses, did not want to fight. The issues of provisions, uniforms and supplies during the war years were never resolved. The army fought reluctantly, but moved forward. The Germans were forced to transfer troops here again, and Russia's Entente allies again isolated themselves, watching what would happen next. On July 6, Germany launched a counteroffensive. As a result, 150,000 Russian soldiers died. The army virtually ceased to exist. The front fell apart. Russia could no longer fight, and this catastrophe was inevitable.

People demanded Russia's withdrawal from the war. And this was one of their main demands from the Bolsheviks, who seized power in October 1917. Initially, at the 2nd Party Congress, the Bolsheviks signed the decree “On Peace,” essentially proclaiming Russia’s exit from the war, and on March 3, 1918, they signed the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty. The conditions of this world were as follows:

• Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
• Russia is losing Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
• Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

As a result of its participation in the First World War, Russia lost: about 1 million square meters of territory, approximately 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of arable land and 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industries were lost.

Historical reference

Events in the war in 1918

Germany got rid of the Eastern Front and the need to wage war on two fronts. As a result, in the spring and summer of 1918, she attempted an offensive on the Western Front, but this offensive had no success. Moreover, as it progressed, it became obvious that Germany was getting the most out of itself, and that it needed a break in the war.

Autumn 1918

The decisive events in the First World War took place in the fall. The Entente countries, together with the United States, went on the offensive. The German army was completely driven out of France and Belgium. In October, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria concluded a truce with the Entente, and Germany was left to fight alone. Her situation was hopeless after the German allies in the Triple Alliance essentially capitulated. This resulted in the same thing that happened in Russia - a revolution. On November 9, 1918, Emperor Wilhelm II was overthrown.

End of the First World War

On November 11, 1918, the First World War of 1914-1918 ended. Germany signed a complete surrender. This happened near Paris, in the Compiègne forest, at the Retonde station. The surrender was accepted by the French Marshal Foch. The terms of the signed peace were as follows:

• Germany admits complete defeat in the war.
• The return of the province of Alsace and Lorraine to France to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
• Germany lost all its colonial possessions, and was also obliged to transfer 1/8 of its territory to its geographical neighbors.
• For 15 years, Entente troops were on the left bank of the Rhine.
• By May 1, 1921, Germany had to pay members of the Entente (Russia was not entitled to anything) 20 billion marks in gold, goods, securities, etc.
• Germany must pay reparations for 30 years, and the amount of these reparations is determined by the winners themselves and can be increased at any time during these 30 years.
• Germany was prohibited from having an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army had to be exclusively voluntary.

The terms of the “peace” were so humiliating for Germany that the country actually became a puppet. Therefore, many people of that time said that although the First World War ended, it did not end in peace, but in a truce for 30 years. That’s how it ultimately turned out...

Results of the First World War

The First World War was fought on the territory of 14 states. Countries with a total population of over 1 billion people took part in it (this is approximately 62% of the entire world population at that time). In total, 74 million people were mobilized by the participating countries, of whom 10 million died and another 20 million were injured.

As a result of the war, the political map of Europe changed significantly. Such independent states as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, and Albania appeared. Austro-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Romania, Greece, France, and Italy have increased their borders. There were 5 countries that lost and lost territory: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia.

Map of the First World War 1914-1918

Germany, united in 1871 into an empire under the rule of Wilhelm I, embarked on the path to creating a colonial power. Leading German industrialists and financiers put forward a program of widespread expansion: in 1884–1885. Germany established a protectorate over Cameroon, Togo, South West Africa, territories in East Africa and part of the island of New Guinea.

William I

Germany's entry into the path of colonial conquest led to an aggravation of Anglo-German contradictions. To further implement its plans, the German government decided to create a powerful navy that could end Great Britain's naval dominance. As a result, in 1898 the Reichstag approved the first bill on the construction of the navy, and in 1900 a new bill was adopted that provided for a significant strengthening of the German fleet.

The German government continued to implement its expansionist plans: in 1898 it captured Qingdao from China, turning a small settlement into a fortress, and in 1899 it acquired a number of islands in the Pacific Ocean from Spain. The attempts made by Great Britain to achieve an agreement with Germany were unsuccessful due to the growing contradictions between them. These contradictions were further intensified in connection with the granting by the Turkish government in 1899, after the visit of Emperor Wilhelm II to the Ottoman Empire and his meeting with Sultan Abdülhamid II, to the Deutsche Bank of a concession to build the main line of the Baghdad Railway, which opened up a direct route for Germany through the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor to the Persian Gulf and provided it with important positions in the Middle East, which threatened Britain’s sea and land communications with India.

Wilhelm II

Abdulhamid II

Back in 1882, to establish its hegemony in Europe, Germany initiated the creation of the so-called Triple Alliance - a military-political bloc of Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy, directed primarily against Russia and France. After concluding an alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, Germany began to seek rapprochement with Italy in order to isolate France. In the context of an acute conflict between Italy and France over Tunisia, Otto von Bismarck managed to persuade Rome to come to an agreement not only with Berlin, but also with Vienna, from whose harsh rule the Lombardy-Venetian region was liberated as a result of the Austro-Italian-French War of 1859 and the Austro-Italian War of 1866.

O. von Bismarck

Contradictions between France and Germany intensified due to the latter's claims to Morocco, which led to the so-called Moroccan crises of 1905 and 1911, which brought these European countries to the brink of war. As a result of Germany's actions, the unity of Great Britain and France only strengthened, which was manifested, in particular, in 1906 at the Algeciras Conference.

Germany tried to take advantage of the clash of interests between Great Britain and Russia in Persia, as well as the general differences between the Entente members in the Balkans. In November 1910, in Potsdam, Nicholas II and Wilhelm II personally negotiated issues relating to the Baghdad Railway and Persia. The result of these negotiations was the Potsdam Agreement, signed in St. Petersburg in August 1911, according to which Russia undertook not to interfere with the construction of the Baghdad Railway. Germany recognized Northern Persia as a sphere of Russian influence and committed itself not to seek concessions in this territory. However, in general, Germany did not succeed in separating Russia from the Entente.

As in other imperialist countries, Germany experienced a rise in nationalist sentiment. The country's public opinion was preparing to wage a war for the redivision of the world.

Italy, having fully united in 1870, did not remain aloof from the struggle for colonies. Initially, Italian expansion was directed to Northeast Africa: in 1889, part of Somalia was captured, and in 1890, Eritrea. In 1895, Italian troops invaded Ethiopia, but in 1896 they were defeated at Adua. In 1912, during the war with the Ottoman Empire, Italy captured Libya, later turning it into its colony.

Back in 1900, notes were exchanged between Italy and France on the latter's mutual recognition of Italian claims to Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, which were opposed by Austria-Hungary, and by Italy - French claims to Morocco. In 1902, an exchange of letters between the French Ambassador in Rome Barrere and the Italian Foreign Minister Prinetti concluded a secret agreement between France and Italy, which provided for the mutual neutrality of France and Italy in the event that one of the parties was the object of an attack or, due to a direct challenge, was forced take the initiative to declare war in defense.

Thus, despite the fact that Italy formally remained part of the Triple Alliance at the beginning of the First World War, colonial interests pushed its government, led by Antonio Salandra, to join the Entente and enter the war on its side in 1915.

A. Salandra

NOTES
Cm.: Tirpitz A. Memories. M., 1957.
Cm.: Yerusalimsky A.S. Foreign policy and diplomacy of German imperialism at the end of the 19th century. M., 1951.
Klyuchnikov Yu.V., Sabanin A.V. International politics of modern times in treaties, notes and declarations. Part 1. M., 1925, p. 241–242, 254–255, 267–268. Cm.: Skazkin S.D. The end of the Austro-Russian-German alliance. M., 1974.
Klyuchnikov Yu.V., Sabanin A.V., With. 241–242, 254–255, 267–268, 304–306. Cm.: Serova O.V. From the Triple Alliance to the Entente: Italian foreign policy and diplomacy at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. M., 1983.
New documents about the Alzheziras conference and the loan of 1906 // Red Archive. T. 1 (44). 1931, p. 161–165; International relations 1870–1918, p. 158–162. See: International relations in the era of imperialism. Ser. 2, vol. 18, parts 1–2. M.-L., 1938.
diplomacy. T. II. M., 1963, p. 698–703.
Collection of treaties between Russia and other states. 1856–1917. M., 1952, p. 405–407.
Cm.: Bulov B. German politics. P., 1917; aka. Memories. M.-L., 1935; German history in modern and contemporary times. T. 1. M., 1970.
Cm.: Popov V.T. The defeat of the Italians at Adua. M., 1938; Voblikov D.R. Ethiopia in the struggle to maintain independence. 1860–1960. M., 1961; Tsypkin G.V., Yagya V.S. History of Ethiopia in modern and contemporary times. M., 1989; Berkeley G.-F.-H. The campaign of Adowa and the rise of Menelik, N.Y., 1969.
Egorin A.Z. History of Libya. XX century M., 1999, p. 35–39. Cm.: Yakhimovich Z.P. Italo-Turkish War 1911–1912 M., 1967.
Egorin A.Z., With. 92–96.
Collection of treaties between Russia and other states. 1856–1917. M., 1952, p. 436–441. Cm.: Salandra A. Italy and the Great War. L., 1932.

History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich

The international position of Russia before the First World War

In 1905–1914 There was a further aggravation of contradictions between the leading world powers. The German threat to the colonial possessions of England and France contributed to the strengthening of the Franco-Russian alliance and forced England to seek rapprochement with Russia. In the ruling circles of Russia, two groups have emerged on foreign policy issues - pro-German and pro-English. Nicholas II showed indecisiveness. Ultimately, he supported the line of rapprochement with England, which was greatly facilitated by the influence of France, Russia’s ally and main creditor, as well as Germany’s claims to the Polish and Baltic lands. In February 1907, three conventions between Russia and England were signed in St. Petersburg, delimiting spheres of influence in the East. These agreements, in essence, completed the formation of the military-political bloc of the Triple Entente countries - France, England, Russia. At the same time, Russia did not want to aggravate relations with Germany. In July 1907, a meeting between Nicholas and Wilhelm took place, at which it was decided to maintain the status quo in the Baltic Sea. In 1910, at the next meeting, a verbal agreement was reached that Russia would not support the anti-German actions of England, and Germany would not support the anti-Russian steps of Austria-Hungary. In 1911, a Russian-German treaty was signed on the delimitation of spheres of influence in Turkey and Iran. The Balkan Wars (1912–1913) exacerbated the contradictions between the Triple Alliance and the Entente, which fought for allies in the Balkan Peninsula. The Entente supported Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Romania, the Austro-German bloc supported Turkey and Bulgaria. Relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary became especially strained. The first was supported by Russia, the second by Germany.

The last pre-war years were marked by an unprecedented arms race. Germany completed its military program by 1914. After another coup in Turkey, pro-German forces came to power, which led to the strengthening of German positions in this region. Germany began to actually control the Black Sea straits. In mid-June 1914, Emperor Wilhelm advised Franz Joseph to take advantage of any opportunity to attack Serbia. The Austro-German bloc counted on Russia's unpreparedness for war and on England's neutrality. The reason for the outbreak of world war was the murder of the heir to the Austrian throne by Serbian nationalists.

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